Twentieth-Century China

In this excellent first book, Wei Wu examines the rise in popularity of esoteric Buddhism in China Proper (i.e., the Republic of China excluding Tibet) among Han (漢) Buddhists during the Republican era (1912–1949), with a focus on how they actively adapted religious knowledge across cultural and linguistic boundaries. Esoteric Buddhist teachings (密教 mijiao) refer to a set of doctrines and practices involving mystic formulae called mantra (真言 zhenyan), normally revealed only to a select few within certain master-disciple lineages, which had an extensive influence within Tibet as well as transmissions into China Proper and Japan. Wu explores the ways in which, from the 1920s to the 1940s, a number of Han Buddhists actively sought to reintroduce these teachings from Japan and Tibet, as they had effectively disappeared in China by that point. She reviews the work of a number of well-known figures, including Taixu (太虛 1890–1947) and the ninth Panchen Lama, Thubten Choekyi Nyima (1883–1937), but much of the book focuses on the lesser-known but important monk Nenghai (能海 1886–1967), whose devotion to both learning the Tibetan language and studying under Tibetan teachers allowed him a unique level of access to esoteric teachings, which he then articulated to other Buddhists in his dharma teaching and in his Chinese-language publications.

Wu argues that Han Buddhists, in adapting newly acquired esoteric knowledge from Japan and Tibet, drew upon a number of repertoires based on established understandings but maintained their own agency in how and why these adaptations occurred (4–11). Each chapter examines a different theme within the book's topic, proceeding in a rough chronological order while at times reaching back to pick up a relevant thread from earlier in the period. Chapter 1, "Chinese Buddhism in Transition," establishes a strong context for what follows, outlining the most pressing issues facing Chinese Buddhists during the Republican era and explaining the appeal of importing esoteric teachings from Japan or Tibet. Central to this chapter is the founding of a Tibetan College (藏文學院 Zangwen xueyuan) that provided Tibetan-language tuition to monastics in anticipation of further study in Tibet (37–42). Chapter 2, "The Lamas and the Rituals," and chapter 3, "Esoteric Buddhism for Laypeople," explore the appeal of esoteric rituals and doctrines for lay Buddhists, including some influential warlords. The involvement in esoteric Buddhism of so many serving and former military men, including Sun Chuanfang (孫傳芳 1885–1935), who was famously assassinated on the grounds of a lay Buddhist society, hints at the strong appeal it held for those concerned with the survival and future of the nation (48). Esoteric Buddhism promised its followers a unique level of access to exotic and rare powers and abilities while still being seen as part of orthodox Buddhist teachings. Such was the demand for knowledge of esoteric teachings that the key Tibetan text Bardol Thodol was translated into Chinese from its more accessible English translation, The Tibetan Book of the Dead, one of a number of retranslations undertaken from European-language Buddhist works during this period (88–93).

Chapter 4, "Debates on Esoteric Buddhism," and chapter 5, "The Path to Enlightenment," explore how Han Buddhists sought to distinguish and/or reconcile what had by then become two quite distinct religious systems. The different cultural contexts in [End Page E-15] which these practices had arisen gave rise to criticisms that they were incompatible with proper Han Buddhist ethics (112–19). Chapter 5 is especially strong and well focused: it examines how Nenghai interpreted and translated the doctrine of lamrim (the graduated path [to enlightenment]) for a Han Buddhist audience. The final chapter, "Tibetan Buddhism among Han Chinese," returns to Nenghai's religious career and his efforts to bring esoteric knowledge to Han Buddhists, which extended into the periods of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the People's Republic.

Wu's book contributes to a number of ongoing academic discussions about Buddhists in the Republican era and the role of religion more broadly. Viewed from the top down, it might appear that religion was largely irrelevant to elite politics and society in Republican China. This book and other recent studies, however, provide clear examples showing that highly placed elite men, many of whom were publicly critical of "superstition," were in fact quite enthusiastic about the supernatural powers promised by esoteric rituals and experts. The book also demonstrates how intercultural relationships between Tibetan and Han Buddhists during this period were negotiated through correspondence, travel, and education. It also addresses the initial interest among Han Buddhists in Japanese esoteric teachings; indeed, many Chinese Buddhist publications from this era were translated from works by Japanese Buddhist scholars, and this flow of influence deserves further study.

While this book is part of a Buddhist Studies series, it is written for and is indeed accessible to a much broader audience. Readers without a strong background in Buddhism will have little trouble in following it. Indeed, not only is it a welcome addition for those of us who specialize in Republican-era Chinese Buddhism, but any reader interested in this era will find much of interest regarding Tibetan-Han intercultural exchanges, as well as examples of adapting new and modern ideas to the intellectual crises of the period.

There are just a few areas where the book falls short of expectations, and none of these detract from the strength and vigor of the arguments contained within. Including literal translations for names of monasteries and Buddhist periodical titles seems unnecessary and perhaps distracting—for example, "Creation Era Temple" for Kaiyuan si (開元寺) (35)—and there are a few minor copyediting and formatting issues throughout the book, such as some given names unaccompanied by Chinese characters. The rich materials and intriguing ideas presented in this book would benefit from additional critical reflection in the conclusions to each chapter and in the book's conclusion, as this would help highlight their relevance and importance to the field.

Overall, this is a significant contribution to scholarship on this pivotal period in the development of Buddhism in China and to our understanding of the intercultural and interlingual transmission of knowledge in early twentieth-century China more generally. [End Page E-16]